Recall that France was ruled by an absolute monarch. Louis XIV had severely limited the influence of nobles and re-centered the government around Versailles. However, Louis XVI, the French king on the eve of revolution, was nothing like him. A teenager when he came to power, he was more interested in his toy boats than governing.
France was bankrupt due to overspending on foreign wars, including Louis XIV’s wars, and the American War of Independence. However, the crown continued to spend lavishly. Marie Antoinette, Louis XVI’s wife, earned the nickname Madame Deficit because of her spending habits.
She was also the subject of numerous pamphlets suggesting that she was highly promiscuous.
French society was highly stratified according to hereditary categories, called estates, remnants of French feudalism. The First Estate (Catholic Church officials) and Second Estate (nobles/aristocrats) both had privileges that the Third Estate (everyone else - over 90% of the population) didn’t have. Most notably, the first two Estates didn’t pay taxes. Therefore, the Third Estate, despite being made up of millions of poor peasants, paid all of the taxes.
In theory, the Estates General were a powerful body; however, it had not been convened since 1615. Both the Second and Third Estates had many complaints about Louis XVI and the absolute monarchy system of government.
"However, Louis XVI, the French king on the eve of revolution, was nothing like him. "
Louis XIV shaped his times by creating an absolute monarchy; Louis XVI, however, lacked the leadership qualities necessary to sustain it.
"She was also the subject of numerous pamphlets suggesting that she was highly promiscuous. "
When women of status are slandered this way, it is often attempt to discredit their moral standing in the community
"The First Estate (Catholic Church officials) and Second Estate (nobles/aristocrats) both had privileges that the Third Estate (everyone else - over 90% of the population) didn’t have. "
History is the ongoing conflict between the haves and the have-nots. This stratification made conflict inevitable.
Recall that liberals wanted to see Enlightenment ideas applied in France. Writers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau criticized the status quo; thanks to the salons that were increasingly popular in Paris, their ideas continued to spread.
The professional middle class, the bourgeoisie, were still technically part of the Third Estate. Thus, despite their increasing wealth, they had little political influence. Besides gaining some political power, they also wanted to limit the corruption in government and the influence of the Church.
"their ideas continued to spread."
Ideas can shape an era. Enlightenment values led to criticism of absolutism.
"the bourgeoisie"
The bourgeoisie control the means of production in a society. Their self-interest outweighs any connection to the working class.
Louis XVI convened the Estates General at Versailles, but locked the Third Estate out of the meeting. In response, the Third Estate met in the tennis courts instead, and took the Tennis Court Oath on June 20th, 1789, swearing not to disband until France had a constitution.
On July 14th, 1789, a crowd of rioters stormed the Bastille, a royal prison. A few soldiers resisted, but most joined the rioters. Though the Bastille contained few prisoners or strategic value, it was a powerful symbol of the crown; thus, the storming of the Bastille was an even more powerful symbol of discontent.
In October of 1789, women in the markets of Paris were on the verge of a full scale riot over bread shortages and prices. When revolutionaries joined their ranks, the women refocused their attention on Versailles. They marched to the palace and stormed in, demanding to see the king. A few days later, they forced the king and queen to return with them to Paris.
"In October of 1789, women in the markets of Paris were on the verge of a full scale riot over bread shortages and prices. "
This is an example of women with no political power responding collectively to a crisis.
This was the liberal, moderate phase in which the form of government switched from a absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy. As the Third Estate demanded via the Tennis Court Oath, a constitution was written, with the preamble being the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Read the Declaration and ask yourself: is this a moderate or an extreme demand by today’s standards?
This was the radical phase of the revolution when the Jacobins came to power. They represented the most radical voices in France, calling for a complete rejection of the past.
Under the Jacobins, the king was arrested, found guilty of treason, and put to death. France became a republic, with no ties to a monarchy. The Jacobins also banned Christianity, created a new religion called the Cult of the Supreme Being, and renamed the days of week and months to more logical names like Thermidor (meaning heat, starting in July) and Floréal (meaning flowers, starting in April).
Extreme political changes were mirrored by extreme methodologies. Two secretive committees ran the government. One of these, the Committee of Public Safety, used executions as a means of quelling opposition. During this period, known as the Terror, over 16 000 people were executed by guillotine.
The third phase was more moderate than its predecessor. Still, the competing forces made the republic unstable. Conservatives wanted to return to a monarchy, while radicals wanted to push the revolution even further. A new governing body, the Directory was in control; it soon began relying on the exploits of rising military commander Napoleon Bonaparte to maintain its power.
Napoleon’s early career was remarkable, but he was almost killed because of it. At the Siege of Toulon in 1793, he openly contradicted the orders of the Committee of Public Safety’s representatives. Normally, such action would result in execution; however, because Napoleon was successful, his transgressions were forgiven.
"Normally, such action would result in execution; however, because Napoleon was successful, his transgressions were forgiven."
Great men create opportunities when none seem to exist. They taking daring risks to succeed.
Mirabeau was an early leader in favour of constitutional monarchy. He died in 1791, when moderation was still possible.
Marat was a journalist who was popular with ordinary French workers and strongly in favour of a republic. He wrote a newspaper called the People’s Friend (L’ami du Peuple) that spread revolutionary ideas and anger.
Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobins, the most radical element in the the Republic. He was also instrumental in the execution of Louis XVI. Robespierre earned the nickname “The Incorruptible” for his iron-like adherence to the principles he believed to be necessary to create the ideal society: virtue and terror.
Royalists wanted the restoration of the monarchy, believing that kings ruled by divine right. A number of Royalists also opposed the revolution because of its impact on their status. Members of the first and second estates (the clergy and the nobility) were more likely to be Royalists than members of the third estate.
Christians opposed the revolution’s outlawing of all faiths but the Cult of the Supreme Being, the new church created by Robespierre.
At the height of the Terror, anyone who did not strictly adhere to the policies of the Committee could face execution. Royalists and extreme revolutionaries both met their ends at the guillotine.
The Catholic Church opposed the revolution for several reasons. Pope Pius VI condemned the lack of religious freedom in France during the revolution’s height. The Church also took issue with the seizing of Church property throughout France.
Many European kings saw the revolution as a direct threat to their monarchies. Thus, European powers waged war against France for most of the revolution. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, four European powers--Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia--agreed to keep revolutionary elements in Europe in check; the last three even gave each other permission to send troops into each other’s lands if revolutions did occur.
Napoleon led a coup against the Directory claiming to be the embodiment of the ideals of the revolution. He eventually declared himself emperor. As Emperor, he reestablished a relationship with the Catholic Church and required military and civil service positions be given according to merit.
"As Emperor, he reestablished a relationship with the Catholic Church and required military and civil service positions be given according to merit."
Napoleon’s reign is a combination of pre-revolutionary values (monarchy/empire, and revolutionary ideals (a meritocracy)
France’s political discord was not solved by the revolution. Only 15 years after the revolution a second one took place, the so-called July Days of 1830.
France’s form of government switched repeatedly. From 1789 to the 20th century, France experienced multiple periods of monarchy, empire and finally republic again.
Inspired by the Revolution, some European colonies sought their own freedom. St. Domingue, the western portion of Hispaniola, was a valuable sugar colony. It won its independence from France, and became most of modern-day Haiti.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was the basis for several declarations of independence in other countries, including in the United States.