“

Our role is to widen the field of discussion, not to set limits in accord with the prevailing authority.

~ Edward Said

Tensions Between Modern and Traditional Approaches to Epistemology

Philosophy, in the Western tradition, is a discipline that has been developed primarily from Greek origins. For instance, in this course we often speak of philosophy’s lineage from the Pre-Socratics to Socrates to Plato and Aristotle, and so on from there.

In the West, Philosophy is generally approached from Eurocentric thought and analytical traditions.

The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence does not come from one source; there are many ways of knowing and many traditions of wisdom(definition:The body of knowledge and principles that develops within a specified society or period.) in all countries and cultures. For example, Edward Wadie Said, Professor of Literature and a founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies, argued that early scholarship of the “Orient(definition:The term Orient or Oriental, was used as a descriptor of people or objects from the countries of Eastern Asia. Today, it is considered outdated and sometimes culturally insensitive.),” specifically of the Arab Islamic World by early Westerners in that region, was biased and projected a false and stereotypical vision of “otherness” on the Islamic world. This facilitated and supported Western colonial policies. As such, even when non-Western epistemic traditions were studied, they were often understood through a Westernized perspective.

And what of the voices of women? Generally, we study the works of male philosophers prior to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Reflect on the names that appear most often when we discuss theories and perspectives. How many of these philosophers are female? Certainly, we have to take into account that historically, women did not always have the same access to education; often, social conventions disallowed them to take part in academia or even to publish their work. However, we also need to recognize that this means that another source of wisdom has been traditionally and historically suppressed.

To better understand why the voices of women are important in the discourse of philosophy, please watch the following interview by Alison Gopnik about ‘The Struggles of a Female Philosopher.’

It is important to recognize that, historically, there are voices missing in the traditional study of Philosophy.  This is because where and how we attain our knowledge can deeply affect our worldview. If certain voices, perspectives, and wisdom are missing, then those ways of seeing and knowing are also missing from our worldview. Thus, we are at risk of not seeing clearly.

A Postmodernist Approach to Philosophy 

Postmodern philosophy of the late twentieth century endorsed a shift in Western Enlightenment values towards a more inclusive and less-stable worldview. Postmodernism for example, was and is a late twentieth century movement of modern critical thought and rhetorical practices that focuses on how we perceive and how we describe what the world is. Thus, it is a worldview that is acutely aware of our “situatedness(definition:The necessity of viewing or understanding life and existence from the 'inside'; whether that is ‘in’ a particular geographical, socio-historical, or cultural context.)” as humans. 

So, when we consider that we are generally missing specific ways of perceiving the world, approaching philosophy from a postmodernist perspective is one way to address this issue. 

In essence, each community constructs its own story of the world, with no story truer than another. All stories are valid. Our perspectives of what is true are shaped largely by the communities or the cultures in which we find ourselves ‘situated.’ In Epistemology, we recognize this connection to community through the Theories of Truth; Correspondence, Coherence, and Pragmatism all rely at some level on a shared concept of what is ‘true.’

While postmodernists generally believe that there isn’t such a thing an ‘absolute truth,’ they recognize that there are ‘truths’ strongly connected to one’s community.

And, as we have explored in both previous activities in this unit, there is a strong interrelation between truth, knowledge, and belief. When certain voices are missing from the practice of philosophy, it means that different ways of thinking about truths may be missing as a result of that exclusion.

An Introduction to Feminist Epistemology

Much of the initial work in feminist epistemology grew out of feminist critiques of the discipline of science, which has had a similar history marked by gender bias and underrepresentation. Feminist epistemology addresses similar concerns regarding bias and under representation, but it is also focused on traditional epistemological concerns regarding the study of knowledge - but from the missing feminist perspective.

Feminist approaches to epistemology are concerned with the ways in which knowers ‘know’ what they know, especially if they are situated in environments that have historically and culturally had an adverse impact upon them. These approaches take seriously the ways in which certain aspects of human cognition and reasoning have been tied to women - and often devalued.

Aspects of Feminist Epistemology - A Sampler

Primarily, feminist epistemologies seek to address the ways in which cultural and historical factors that have systematically excluded or oppressed female voices and perspectives, distorting, rather than enabling, knowledge.

An Introduction to Indigenous Ways of Knowing

The concept of a worldview has been described as the ‘mental lens’ that is an entrenched way of seeing the world. Worldviews are developed throughout a person’s lifetime; they are derived from socialization and social interactions. So, imagine if your worldview was not informed by your own culture or your own community - that your socialization and social interactions have historically and culturally sought to eradicate your heritage.

Indigenous perspectives are greatly underrepresented in Western approaches to philosophy. Although colonialism and viewing philosophy from a Western lens is largely responsible, it is also important to understand that Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing do not "fit" within a Western framework. Appreciating Indigenous epistemologies involves awareness and understanding, rather than definitions. We do this by being in relationships with Indigenous peoples, recognizing and honouring the traditional Indigenous pedagogies and understandings based on the diversity of their cultural and cognitive realities.

When attempting to understand Indigenous ways of knowing, the potential to compound the mistakes of the past are still possible. In our explorations of Indigenous epistemologies, some of the questions we need to consider are as follows.

• In what ways can we ensure that Indigenous knowledges are not being defined, compared, and explored through Western lens-based epistemology?
• What can we learn from understanding Indigenous knowledges? 
• How can these explorations become a part of our understanding of what we know?

Decolonizing Epistemology

Holistic Coherence

Generally speaking, each individual has an obligation to use her or his knowledge in such a way as to ensure the holistic coherence of the world. Knowledge is first embedded in a community's specific culture and value system of humility, respect, sharing, and reciprocity. In short, knowledge is grounded in a people, a place, and a shared history.

Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is defined as the established knowledge of Indigenous nations, their worldviews, and the customs and traditions that direct them. 

Indigenous knowledge is personal, oral, experiential, holistic, and conveyed in narrative or metaphorical language. Knowledge is primarily linked to the observation of the surrounding natural, social, and supernatural environments, and direct experiences with them. This means that knowledge is primarily propositional.

Indigenous Worldviews

The following Indigenous worldviews reflect this people’s close relationship with the
environment. 

1. Knowledge is holistic, cyclic, and dependent upon relationships and connections to living and nonliving beings and entities.  
2. There are many truths, and these truths are dependent upon individual experiences. 
3. Everything is alive.
4. All things are equal.
5. The land is sacred.
6. The relationship between people and the spiritual world is important. 
7. Human beings are least important in the world.

Inuit Qaujimaningit

Inuit Qaujimaningit refers to Inuit Traditional Knowledge and was developed based on Inuit beliefs and values that are practiced as a part of everyday living for an Inuk. By implementing traditional knowledge into the everyday life of Inuit people, the Inuit are ensuring the conservation of social and economic sustainability.

In practice, the following Inuit knowledge, values, and teachings are passed from the elders to the younger generation. 

1. Inuuqatigiitsiarniq: Respecting others, relationships, and caring for people.
2. Tunnganarniq: Fostering good spirit by being open, welcoming, and inclusive.
3. Pijitsirniq: Serving and providing for family and/or community.
4. Aajiiqatigiinniq: Decision making through discussion and consensus.
5. Pilimmaksarniq/Pijariuqsarniq: Development of skills through observation, mentoring, practice, and effort.
6. Piliriqatigiinniq/Ikajuqtigiinniq: Working together for a common cause.
7. Qanuqtuurniq: Being innovative and resourceful.
8. Avatittinnik Kamatsiarniq: Respect and care for the land, animals, and the environment.

Non-Western Approaches to Knowing

When discussing epistemological approaches to the construction of knowledge, we need to broaden the framework we use from something other than the Eurocentric perspective. Western tradition has various ways in which it defines and defends ways of knowing, often with a focus on empirical practices. While the Western view of knowledge adheres to several traditional methods of inquiry, knowledge in other cultures may be, for example, spiritual or revealed knowledge that is learned through meditation or introspection.

Worse, some Western schools of thought romanticize traditional knowledge, which actually devalidates it because it fails to acknowledge that in its process of becoming knowledge, it too had to adhere to scrutiny, discourse, and even empirical practices before its truths were accepted by the community.

Diverse Perspectives on Knowing